The Origins and Developments of Dragon and Phoenix Worships in Ancient China (I)

[Soleilmavis]

Soleilmavis presented this paper at E-Leader Conference held in Jan 2023 by CASA (Chinese American Scholars Association) and Training Vision Institute,

52 Jurong Gateway Road, JEM Office Tower, Singapore.

Website is:  http://www.trainingvision.com.sg

Shanhaijing tells that the earliest phoenix and dragon worships came from zoolatry. Ancient people regarded some kinds of birds as phoenixes and aquatic or amphibious animals as dragons, except the Fire Dragon (or Red Dragon).

The phoenix worship, which came from the Nü He People, the main founders of Dong Yi Culture, became the first worship in ancient China, including the Xia (2070-1600BCE), Shang (1600-1046BCE), Zhou (1046-256BCE), Qin (221-207BCE) and Han (202BCE-220CE) Dynasties, they also regarded Nü Wa as the highest Goddess.

Due to helping the Zhou to destroy the Shang, the Huang Di’s and Yan Di’s offspring brought the dragon worship to the Yellow River and Changjiang River valleys. The dragon outweighed other zoolatry worships and became one of the four spirit animals: blue dragon, white tiger, red Zhuque (phoenix) and black tortoise and snake. Phoenix ranked the first and Dragon ranked the fourth, recorded in Shuoyuan. 

From the Shang, Zhou and Han to the Tang Dynasty (618-907CE), phoenix was the sign of the imperial power, while dragon was only used to be the metaphor of male elite (but not used on the imperial power).

Empress Wu Ze-tian (624-705CE) said that phoenix was the metaphor of the imperial power of empress and female ruler of the country and dragon was the metaphor of the imperial power of male emperor. After Wu Ze-tian, phoenix being the metaphor of the imperial power was weakened, but dragon being the metaphor of the imperial power was increased.

Dragon had evolved into the imperial symbol only since the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), when Chinese emperors started wearing Dragon Robes and calling themselves “Son of God, The Real Dragon.” Since then, dragon became a symbol of power, strength and good luck and even a totem of China as a whole in modern times.

 

Keywords: Shanhaijing; Neolithic China, Shao Hao, Huang Di, Dragon and Phoenix Worships, Ancient Chinese Civilization,

 

Introduction

Shanhaijing tells that the earliest phoenix and dragon worships came from zoolatry. Ancient Chinese people regarded some kinds of birds as phoenixes. These birds had the similarities -  bearing five colors, singing and dancing freely and lightheartedly, also seeing them was a propitious sign of a peaceful and harmonious world. Offspring of the Nü He People believed the phoenix Yuan Chu controlled the sun and moon to make them rise in order. Offspring of the Di Jun People believed phoenix could reach gods.

Ancient people regarded some kinds of aquatic or amphibious animals as dragons, except the Fire Dragon (or Red Dragon). The earliest dragon worship came from the Huang Di People, who were located in Mount Zhang Wei in the north of the Chishui River, and worshipped Fire Dragon (or Red Dragon), who could control the weather; while offspring of the Ying Long People (the Huang Di’s offspring), who went south after the wars, worshipped their ancestor-god Ying Long as a kind of dragon, which could control the rain. They believed that theYing Long dragon made the southern China rainy.

Archaeologists and scientists have discovered Dong Yi Culture, firstly developed in the Shandong Peninsula, then spread out to other places of China, greatly influenced ancient China and had the leading role in making the Yellow River Valley Cultural System the root of ancient Chinese civilization. Dong Yi Culture was the root of the Xia (2070-1600BCE), Shang (1600-1046BCE), Zhou (1046-256BCE), Qin (221-207BCE) and Han (202BCE-220CE) dynasties.

The phoenix worship, which came from the Nü He People, the main founders of Dong Yi Culture, became the first worship in ancient China, including the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han Dynasties, they also regarded Nü Wa as the highest Goddess.

Due to helping the Zhou to destroy the Shang, the Huang Di’s and Yan Di’s offspring, who became aristocrats of the Zhou, brought the dragon worship to the Yellow and Changjiang River valleys. The dragon outweighed other zoolatry worships and became one of the four spirit animals: blue dragon, white tiger, red Zhuque (phoenix) and black tortoise and snake. Phoenix ranked the first and it could reach gods, set the country to the right and lead people to the right way; while dragon ranked the fourth, its size was changeable, it was both visible and invisible, but it did not have the abilities which phoenix had, recorded in Shuoyuan. 

From the Shang, Zhou and Han to the Tang Dynasty (618-907CE), phoenix was the sign of the imperial power, while dragon was only used to be the metaphor of male elite (but not used on the imperial power).

Empress Wu Ze-tian (624-705CE) said that phoenix was the metaphor of the imperial power of empress and female ruler of the country and dragon was the metaphor of the imperial power of male emperor. After Wu Ze-tian, phoenix being the metaphor of the imperial power was weakened, but dragon being the metaphor of the imperial power was increased.

However, since the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) Dynasties, a large number of people believed that dragons had very low official rank and could control the rain and earth’s aquatic areas in Buddhism, Taosim and the folklore.

Dragon had evolved into the imperial symbol only since the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), when Chinese emperors started wearing Dragon Robes and calling themselves “Son of God, The Real Dragon.” Since then, dragon became a symbol of power, strength and good luck and even a totem of China as a whole in modern times. However, in the folklore, dragon remained low official rank in the heaven, such as the novel Feng Shen Bang (Investiture of the Gods) and A Journey to the West (Wu Cheng-en) written in the Ming Dynasty. Meanwhile, every village had a Dragon Temple which was only ranked a little higher than the Village-god Temple.

Ancient Chinese Civilizations

Archaeologists and historians commonly agree that Neolithic China had two main ancient cultural systems: the Yellow River Valley and Changjiang River Valley Cultural Systems. Starting from the lower reaches areas of the Yellow and Changjiang rivers, these cultures spread to surrounding areas.

 

The Yellow River Valley Cultural System

The Yellow River Valley Cultural System, which included Di Qiang and Dong Yi cultures, was established on millet cultivation in the early and middle stages of the Neolithic Age and divided from wheat cultivation in the Shandong Peninsula and eastern Henan Province and millet cultivation in other areas, during the period of Longshan Culture (about 3200-1900BCE).

 

 

 

 

Di Qiang Culture

Di Qiang Neolithic Culture contained seven phases:

Laoguantai Culture (about 6000-5000BCE) existed in the Weihe River Valley, or Guanzhong Plain, in Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. Laoguantai people lived predominantly by primitive agriculture, mainly planting millet.

Qin’an Dadiwan First Culture (about 6200-3000BCE) included pre-Yangshao Culture, Yangshao Culture and Changshan Under-layer Culture. Dating from at least 6000BCE, Qin’an First Culture is the earliest Neolithic culture so far discovered in archaeological digs in the northwestern China. In a site of Dadiwan First Culture in Tianshui of Gansu in the west of the Guanzhong Plain, from around 6200BCE, archaeologists found the earliest cultivated millet.

Yangshao Culture (about 5000-3000BCE), also called Painted-Pottery Culture, existed in the middle reach of the Yellow River. Centered in Huashan, it reached east to eastern Henan Province, west to Gansu and Qinghai provinces, north to the Hetao area, the Great Band of Yellow River and the Great Wall near Inner Mongolia, and south to the Jianghan Plain. Its core areas were Guanzhong and northern Shaanxi Province. Like Laoguantai Culture, it was based predominantly on primitive agriculture, mainly the planting of millet.

Cishan-peiligang Culture (about 6200-4600BCE) existed in modern-day Henan Province and southern Hebei Province. Yangshao Culture later developed from this culture. The people subsisted on agriculture and livestock husbandry, planting millet and raising pigs.

Majiayao Culture (about 3000-2000BCE) was distributed throughout central and southern Gansu Province, centered in the Loess Plateau of western Gansu Province and spreading east to the upper reaches of the Weihe River, west to the Hexi (Gansu) Corridor and northeastern Qinghai Province, north to the southern Ningxia autonomous region and south Sichuan Province. From Majiayao Culture came the earliest Chinese bronzes and early writing characters, which evolved from Yangshao Culture’s written language. Maijayao people planted millet and raised pigs, dogs and goats.

Qijia Culture (about 2000-1000BCE) is also known as Early Bronze Culture. Its inhabitation areas were essentially coincident with Majiayao Culture. It had roots not only in Majiayao Culture, but also influences from cultures in the east of Longshan and the central Shaanxi Plain. Qijia Culture exhibited advanced pottery making. Copper-smelting had also appeared and Qijia people made small red bronzewares, such as knives, awls, mirrors and finger rings.

Siwa Culture (about 1400-700BCE) existed mainly in the east of Lanzhou in Gansu Province and the Qianshui River and Jingshui River valleys in Shaanxi Province. Siwa settlements were of significant size and held a mixture of citizens and slaves. The Siwa people produced pottery with distinctive saddle-shaped mouths and bronzeware including dagger-axes, spears, arrowheads, knives and bells.

 

Dong Yi Culture

Dong Yi Culture was the most advanced culture in Neolithic China. First located in the Shandong Peninsula, its influence later spread to other places of China.

 

Dong Yi Neolithic Culture contained five evolutionary phases:

Houli Culture (about 6400-5700BCE) was a millet-growing culture in the Shandong Peninsula during the Neolithic Age. The original site at Houli in the Linzi District of Shandong, was excavated from 1989 to 1990.

Beixin Culture (about 5300-4100BCE) was a millet-growing Neolithic culture in the Shandong Peninsula, existing in the southern and northern Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains in the west of the Jiaolai River, including today’s Yanzhou, Qufu, Tai’an, Pingyin, Changqing, Jinan, Zhangqiu, Zouping, Wenshang, Zhangdian, Qingzhou, Juxian, Linshu, Lanlin and Tengzhou. It also spread out to today’s Xuzhou and Lianyungang. The original site at Beixin, in Tengzhou of Shandong Province, was excavated from 1978 to 1979.

Dawenkou Culture (about 4100-2600BCE) existed primarily in the Shandong Peninsula, but also appeared in Anhui, Henan and Jiangsu provinces. The typical site at Dawenkou, located in Tai’an of Shandong Province, was excavated in 1959, 1974 and 1978. As with Beixin and Houli cultures, the main food was millet.

Yueshi Culture (about 2000-1600BCE) appeared in the same areas as Longshan Culture. The original site at Yueshi, in Pingdu of Shandong Province, was excavated in 1959.

Longshan Culture (about 3200-1900BCE) was centered on the central and lower Yellow River, including Shandong, Henan and Shaanxi provinces, during the late Neolithic period. Longshan Culture was named after the town of Longshan in Jinan, Shandong Province, where the first site containing distinctive cultural artifacts was found in 1928 and excavated from 1930 to 1931.

 

The Changjiang River Valley Cultural System included:

1).  The rice-growing cultures in the lower reach of the Changjiang River, such as:

Hemudu Culture (about 5000-3300BCE) in Yuyao of Zhejiang;

Majiabang Culture (about 5000-4000BCE) in Jiaxing of Zhejiang and its successors,

Songze Culture (about 3800-2900BCE) in Qingpu District of Shanghai, and

Liangzhu Culture (about 3300-2300BCE) near Taihu of Zhejiang.

Their main cultivated food was rice. Many painted-potteries and also a large numbers of black potteries, discovered in these sites, suggests they had been influenced by Dawenkou Culture, which had spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the eastern Anhui, Henan and Jiangsu.

2) The rice-growing cultures in the middle reach of the Changjiang River, such as:

Pengtoushan Culture (about 8200-7800BCE) in Li County of Hunan,

Daxi Culture (about 4400-3300BCE) in Wushan County of Chongqing and

Qujialing (about 2550-2195BCE) in Jingshan County of Hubei.

Their main cultivated food was rice. Potteries discovered in Pengtoushan are only red brown painted-pottery and in Daxi are mainly red painted-pottery, but in Qujialing are mainly black and grey pottery. Patterns of painted-potteries in Daxi show clear connection with Miaodigou type of Yangshao Culture, suggesting that Yangshao Culture had deeply influenced Daxi Culture. Black potteries discovered in Qujialing have some similarities with Longshan Culture, suggesting that Longshan Culture had deeply influenced Qujialing Culture and its successors.

 

Other Cultural Systems included:

1. The millet-growing cultures in the southeastern Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, include:

Xiaohexi Culture (about 6500BCE) in Aohan Banner;

Xinglongwa Culture (about 6200-5400BCE) in Xinglongwa Village of Baoguotu Township in Aohan Banner of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and its successors,

Zhaojiagou Culture (about 5200-4400BCE) in Aohan Banner and

Hongshan Culture (about 4000-3000BCE), which have been found in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning. Their main cultivated food was millet.

Xinglongwa sites discover the earliest jade objects and a stone pile with dragon shape. Clay figurines, including figurines of pregnant women, are found throughout Hongshan sites. Hongshan burial artifacts include small copper rings and some of the earliest known examples of jade working, especially its jade pig dragons and embryo dragons. The dragon shape stone pile in Xinglongwa and jade dragons in Hongshan suggest the earliest dragon worship in ancient China.

 

2. Dalongtan Culture(about 4500BCE）situated at Long’an County of Guangxi Province. Main cultivated food was rice.

 

3. Dabenkeng Culture (about 4000-3000BCE) appeared in northern Taiwan and spread around the coast of the island, as well as the Penghu islands to the west. The rope figure potteries found in Dabenkeng are similar with Hemudu, Majiabang and Liangzhu. German archaeologist Robert Heine Geldern thought that Dabenkeng Culture also spread from Taiwan to Philippines and Polynesia.

 

4. Sanxingdui Culture(about 12000-3000BCE)

The site of Sanxingdui, located in the city of Guanghan, 40km from Chengdu, Sichuan Province, is recognized as one of the most important ancient remains in the world for its vast size, lengthy period and enriched cultural contents.

The first Sanxingdui relics were discovered by a farmer in 1929 and excavation has continued ever since. During this period, generations of archaeologists have worked on the discovery and research of the Sanxingdui culture. In 1986, two major sacrificial pits were found and they aroused widespread academic attention around the world.

Archaeologists have discovered remains of human activity in Sanxingdui about 12,000 years BP. The archaeological site of Sanxingdui contains remains of Bronze Age culture. The culture of the Sanxingdui site is thought to be divided into several phases. The Sanxingdui Culture (about 5,000-3,000 years BP), which corresponds to periods II-III of the site, was an obscure civilization in southern China. This culture was contemporaneous with the Shang Dynasty. However, they developed a different method of bronze-making from the Shang. The first phase, which corresponds to Period I of the site, belongs to the Baodun and in the final phase (period IV) the culture merged with the Ba and Chu cultures. The culture was a strong central theocracy with trade links that brought bronze from Yin and ivory from Southeast Asia.

The most obvious difference, between Sanxingdui and the Chinese Bronze Age cultures of Henan, is the presence at Sanxingdui of a figural bronze tradition - statues, heads, and faces - without precedent elsewhere in China.

The Sanxingdui Culture ended, possibly either as a result of natural disasters (evidence of massive flooding has been found), or invasion by a different culture.

Archaeologists have discovered the archaeological sites of jinsha near Chengdu, 50 kilometers to Sanxingdui. The cultural relics of Jinsha Culture (about 1250-650BCE) share similarities with Sanxingdui, but some of Jinsha’s relics share similarities with Liangzhu Culture (3300-2300BCE) in the lower reach of the Changjiang River. Historians believe that the Jinsha People came from Sanxingdui, but had influenced by the Changjiang River Valley cultures.

 

Dong Yi Culture Turned Other Cultures Into Outposts of Dong Yi Culture. 

Dawenkou Dong Yi Culture (4100-2600BCE) spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the inhabitation areas of Hongshan Culture (4000-3000BCE) (in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning), also to the Liaodong Peninsula, Korea Peninsula, Japanese archipelago, Kamchatka Peninsula, Aleutian Islands and Americas, and turned these regions into outposts of Dong Yi Culture.

Dawenkou Dong Yi Culture spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the west to Henan and eastern Anhui, also to the lower reach of the Changjiang River, then to the southeastern China and the inhabitation areas of Dabenkeng Culture (4000-3000BCE), including Taiwan, Philippines and Polynesia, and turned these regions into outposts of Dong Yi Culture. 

Longshan (Dong Yi) Culture (3200-1900BCE) spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the south to the lower reach of the Changjiang River, also to the west to the inhabitation areas of Cishan-peiligang (6200-4600BCE) and Yangshao (5000-3000BCE) (in the middle reach of the Yellow River), which then deeply influenced Daxi Culture (4400-3300BCE) and Qujialing (about 2550-2195BCE) in the middle reach of the Changjiang River, and turned these regions into outposts of Dong Yi Culture.

Through this diffusion, Dong Yi Culture greatly influenced ancient China and had the leading role in making the Yellow River Valley Cultural System the root of ancient Chinese civilization.

Most small regional cultures of ancient China had faded by the end of Neolithic Age, including the Changjiang River Valley Cultural System. However, the Yellow River Valley Culture became the mainstay of ancient Chinese civilization and developed to a much higher level.

 

Shanhaijing, the Classic of Mountains and Seas

Shanhaijing, or Classic of Mountains and Seas, is a classic Chinese text compiling early geography and myth. Some people believe it is the first geography and history book in China. It is largely a fabulous geographical and cultural account of pre-Qin China as well as a collection of Chinese mythology. The book is about 31,000 words long and is divided into eighteen sections. It describes, among other things, over 550 mountains and 300 rivers. Versions of the text have existed since the fourth century BCE, but the present form was not reached until the early Han Dynasty (202BCE-220CE), a few centuries later.

It is also commonly accepted that Shanhaijing is a compilation of four original books:

1): Wu Zang Shan Jing, or Classic of the Five Hidden Mountains, passed from mouth to mouth in the Great Yu’s Time (before 2200BCE);

2): Hai Wai Si Jing, or Four Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas, passed from mouth to mouth during the Xia Dynasty (about 2070-1600BCE);

3): Da Huang Si Jing, or Four Classic of the Great Wilderness, written during the Shang Dynasty (about 1600-1046BCE); and

4): Hai Nei Wu Jing, or Five Classic of Regions Within the Seas, written during the Zhou Dynasty (about 1046-256BCE).

The first known editor of Shanhaijing was Liu Xiang (77-6BCE) in the Han Dynasty, who was particularly well-known for his bibliographic work in cataloging and editing the extensive imperial library.[1] Later, Guo Pu (276-324CE), a scholar from the Jin Dynasty (also known as Sima Jin, 265-420CE), further annotated the work. [2]

 

Where was the Great Wilderness recorded in Shanhaijing? 

According to Shanhaijing, the Great Wilderness was a large tract of savage land that unfit for human habitation and was in the south of the Mobile Desert, today’s Taklamakan Desert. Clearly, it included today’s Tibetan Plateau, west areas of the Sichuan Basin and western Yungui Plateau. Shanhaijing also mentioned “east wilderness” and “other wilderness,” which were not today’s Tibetan Plateau, but other savage lands that unfit for human habitation.

In Shanhaijing, the He (literally means river and hereinafter written as Yellow River) refers to the Yellow River, which rises in the northern Bayankala Mountains, and the Jiang (hereinafter written as Changjiang River) refers to the Changjiang River, which rises in the southern Bayankala Mountains which is located in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau.

Shanhaijing uses Shui to name other rivers and waters.

 

 

 

The Mobile Desert in Shanhaijing refers to today’s Taklamakan Desert, the Asia’s biggest and world’s second biggest mobile desert, while the Rub Al Khal Desert in the Arabian Peninsula is the world’s biggest desert.

 The Chishui River in Shanhaijing was located in the east of the Mobile Desert, today’s Taklamakan Desert, and the west of the Northwest Sea.

Shanhaijing uses Hai to name sea and saltwater lake and uses Ze, Chi and Yuan to name freshwater pool and lake.

The Northwest Sea is today’s Qinghai Lake. The Qinghai Lake, also called Kokonor Lake, is a saltwater lake and used to be very big, but it had reduced to 1,000 kilometers in perimeter in the North Wei Dynasty (386-557CE) and kept reducing to 400 kilometers in perimeter in the Tang Dynasty (618-907CE) and 360 kilometers in perimeter today.

The areas to the west of today’s Dunhuang have been called the Western Regions of China since the Han Dynasty (202BCE-220CE).

 

Where was Mount Buzhou?

The Classic of the Mountains: West records, “Mount Buzhou is located in the northwest of Mount Chang Sha, 370 li away. Mount Zhu Bi is to the north and Mount Yue Chong is next to it; Lake Ao Ze lies to the east. From Mount Buzhou 420 li to the northwest is Mount Mi, where Huang Di lived in and ate jade ointment; another 420 li to the northwest is Mount Zhong; another 480 li to the northwest is Mount Tai Qi; another 320 li to the west is Mount Huai Jiang; another 400 li to the southwest is Kun Lun Mound, (which is not today’s Kunlun Mountain); another 370 li to the west is Mount Le You; another 400 li to the west is the desert. From Mount Le You 350 li to the northwest is Mount Yu, where the Western Queen Mother lived in; another 480 li to the west is Xuan Yuan Mound; another 300 li to the west is Mount Ji Shi; another 200 li to the west is Mount Chang Liu (hereinafter written as Changliu), where Shao Hao was respected as the White King or White Ancestor-god.”

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West records, “Mount Buzhou was located in the region beyond the Northwest Sea (today’s Qinghai Lake), the border of the Great Wilderness (today’s Tibetan Plateau).”

Wang Yi, a scholar of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220CE), thought Mount Buzhou was located in the northwest of the Kunlun Mountains.

Many current scholars believe that Mount Buzhou was located in the eastern Pamirs Plateau, to the west of the Kunlun Mountains, but the specific location is not confirmed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Archaeological Findings Match Shanhaijing’s Records of Ancient Groups of Chinese People.

Current humans share a common group of ancestors who were late Modern Humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) and who became the only surviving human species on Earth about 20,000 years ago. This latest human species, Homo sapiens sapiens, our ancestors, soon entered the Neolithic, a period in the development of human technology. The Neolithic period began in some parts of the Middle East about 18,000 years BP according to the ASPRO chronology and later in other parts of the world and ended between 4500BCE and 2000BCE.

About 20,000-19,000 years BP, in the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) period, vast ice sheets covered much of North America, northern Europe and Asia; many high mountains were covered by snow and ice. The world’s sea level was about 130 meters lower than today, due to the large amount of sea water that had evaporated and been deposited as snow and ice, mostly in the Laurentide ice sheet. At the later stage of the Pleistocene since about 18,000 years BP, temperature rose quickly and snow and ice started melting, including the Pamirs Plateau and Tibetan Plateau. [3]

Neolithic archaeological discoveries have included cultivated rice from as early as 14,000 years BP. These include sites in Dao County of Hunan Province (about 12,000BCE), Wannian County of Jiangxi Province (about 10,000 years BP) and Yingde of Guangdong Province (about 9000-6000BCE). Archaeologists have found a lot of remains of human activity 10,000 years ago in China, including Bianbian cave of Yiyuan in Shandong (about 9,000-12,000 years BP), Nazhuantou of Xushui in Henan, Yuchanyan of Dao County in Hunan, Diaotonghuan in Jiangxi, Baozitou of Nanning in Guangxi, Ji County of Tianjin and Qinglong County of Guizhou. In 2013, Hou Guang-liang, the professor of the School of Life and Geography Science of Qinghai Normal University, and other archaeologists of the Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute of Qinghai discovered remains of human activity about 11,200-10,000 years BP in Xiadawu of Maqin County, Golog Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province.

These prove that the ancestors of modern humans had lived in China at least 16,000-14,000 years ago.

Shanhaijing records many Neolithic groups of people (or tribes) in Neolithic China, and identifies no more than 150 groups, which came from the five biggest groups: Shao Hao, Di Jun, Zhuan Xu, Huang Di and Yan Di. These groups first lived in the Pamirs Plateau and their offspring moved to the east and spread out to all over China.  

Shanhaijing’s records and archaeological findings bring us a scientific conclusion. The Pamirs Plateau was very cold and unfit for human habitation before 16,000 years BP. As temperature rising, people, who came from the Middle East, began to enter the Pamirs Plateau around 16,000-15,000 years BP, soon they found that in the east of the Pamirs, there were vast fertile lands, they moved quickly from the Pamirs to the east and spread out to many places of China during about 16,000-14,000 years BP. The early ancient Chinese people lived nomadic lifestyle, moved frequently and were not able to leave much archaeological remains to us. However, when Neolithic Chinese people started cultivating grains, they were able to settle down and left many archaeological remains.

Archaeologists agree that ancient Chinese people were in the matriarchal clan society before about 8,000 years BP, when human knew only mother, not father, and accepted only endogamy. Before 8,000 years BP, Huang Di group lived in the matriarchal clan society and had females as leaders, a male was not able to be a leader of his group. Originally, Huang Di was the name of a group, not a particular individual.

In about 8,000 years BP, the patriarchal clan society began, ancient Chinese people, who still accepted only endogamy and believed that they were offspring of the Huang Di group, tried to compile their patriarchal clans and compile an imaginary character: Huang Di to be their common male ancestor.

Today, we shall comprehend that Huang Di refers to Huang Di group. The Huang Di People refer to all people who were offspring of Huang Di group and regarded a imaginary character: Huang Di as their common male ancestor. So did Yan Di, Shao Hao, Zhuan Xu and Di Jun.

While most geographical positions written in Shanhaijing cannot be verified, Shanhaijing still provides some hints to let us know the homelands of ancient groups of people.

Note:  The word King (Chinese pinyin Di) in Shanhaijing and my papers does not only use on male leaders, but also use on female leaders.

The word GOD (Chinese pinyin Shen or Shang Di) in my papers is only used on the highest GOD. Other supernatural powers or worships, I use the words: god (small letter), spirit, fairy or Ancestor-god. 

 

Five Biggest Groups of Neolithic Chinese People had Lived in the Pamirs Plateau before They Moved to other Places of China.

The Classic of the Mountains: West records that Huang Di (Yellow King) lived in Mount Mi. It also records that Shao Hao was respected as Bai Di (White King or White Ancestor-god) by people in Mount Changliu. The fact that the Chang Liu People regarded Shao Hao as their “White King” or “White Ancestor-god” indicates that the Chang Liu People were offspring of the Shao Hao. Mount Mi and Changliu were located in the northwest of Mount Buzhou in today’s Pamirs Plateau.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East tells that the Zhuan Xu gave birth to the Shu Shi People, who lived near Mount Buzhou. Also The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West says, “The Yu People (Di Jun’s offspring) fought with the Gong Gong People (Zhuan Xu’s offspring) in the Guo Mountain near Mount Buzhou,” suggesting Zhuan Xu’s group lived near Mount Buzhou.

The Classic of the Mountains: West records, the Hou Ji hid near a big lake in the west of Mount Huai Jiang (in the west of Mount Mi and east of Mount Yu and Changliu). (The Di Jun gave birth to Hou Ji and Tai Xi, who gave birth to Shu Jun.) Also, Shanhaijing records many groups of the Di Jun’s offspring living in the northwestern Tibetan Plateau, including King Shun’s group and the Yu People, who lived near Mount Buzhou. Clearly, Di Jun’s group used to live near Mount Buzhou.

Shanhaijing does not contain any detail of Yan Di’s group living in the Pamirs Plateau, but clearly records that the Ling Jia and Hu Ren People lived in the west of the Taklamakan Desert. (The Yan Di gave birth to a group of people who gave birth to Ling Jia; The Ling Jia gave birth to Hu Ren.) Drawing inferences about other cases from the Huang Di, Shao Hao, Zhuan Xu and Di Jun, we can say that Yan Di’s group used to live near the Pamirs Plateau, later their offspring moved to the west of the Taklamakan Desert.

Shanhaijing also tells other groups of people lived in the Pamirs Plateau. The Western Queen Mother lived in Mount Yu and the Xuan Yuan People lived in the Xuan Yuan Mound, recorded in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West and The Classic of the Mountains: West.

 

Neolithic Chinese People spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the West of the Qinghai Lake and East of the Taklamakan Desert, then to other places.

The Huang Di, Zhuan Xu, Di Jun and Shao Hao People, and some other peoples, such as the Xuan Yuan, Xi (west) Zhou and Bei (north) Qi People, spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the west of the Qinghai Lake and east of the Taklamakan Desert, lived nomadic lifestyle side by side, hunting animal, collecting millet and learning from each other. Within five to six generations, they had mastered many new sciences and technologies, Tai Zi Chang Qin (Zhuan Xu’s great-grandson) was the progenitor of making music instruments and Shu Jun (Di Jun’s grandson) was the progenitor of practicing cultivating grains.

After some wars, ancient Chinese people made some agreements. The Huang Di People moved to the north of the Chishui River, Tianshan Mountains and further northern and northeastern areas.

The Shao Hao People spread out to the east to the Weihe River Valley and lower reach of the Yellow River, then to today’s Shandong Peninsula and the eastern seashore, from where, spread out along coastline to the south and north,

The Di Jun People, who followed the Shao Hao’s migration route to the east, to the Weihe River Valley and lower reach of the Yellow River. From the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, the Di Jun People spread out to the south to the middle and lower reaches of the Changjiang River and its south. The Di Jun lived in the west of the Shao Hao’s inhabitation areas, which were near the sea.

Due to the fact that the Zhuan Xu People had many wars with the Di Jun and those wars ended with the Zhuan Xu’s defeat, it is highly possible that the Di Jun People did not allow the Zhuan Xu People to enter the Weihe Plain. This matches Shanhaijing having no records of the Zhuan Xu People living in the central and eastern areas. Most of the Zhuan Xu People lived near the Tibetan Plateau and later some of them moved to the south, (such as the Zhu Rong People), reached the Sichuan Basin, (such as the Yu Fu People), and the Bay of Bengal, (such as the Huan Tou People).

The Yan Di People spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the west and north of the Taklamakan Desert, later spread out to the north and northwest of the Tianshan Mountains. They were nomadic people and did not develop agriculture during the Neolithic Age.

Of course, there were also possibly very few groups from the Di Jun, Zhuan Xu and Shao Hao going to the north, or going to the south; due to the fact that they were not the majority, we would not discuss them.

 

The Huang Di People

The Huang Di People spread out from Mount Mi in the Pamirs Plateau to the east of the Taklamakan Desert and west of the Qinghai Lake. After wars, the Huang Di People moved to the north of the Chishui River, excepting one group, the Ying Long People, who had killed the Chi You (the Zhuan Xu’s offspring) and Kua Fu (the Zhuan Xu’s offspring), went to the south and some of the Ying Long’s offspring moved to the north of the eastern mountains.

From the north of the Chishui River, the Huang Di People spread out to northern areas. Their migration routes were:

First, to the north of the Altun Mountains, Qilian Mountains, Helan Mountains, north of the middle reach of the Yellow River and Yinshan Mountains. Huang Di’s offspring, who lived in these areas, were nomadic people and did not develop agriculture during the Neolithic Age.

The Mount Helan Rock Paintings, 56 kilometers north of Yinchuan of Ningxia, were created by artists living in the area in different periods from about 10,000-1,000 years BP, forming the historical accumulation of multi-cultures. Most of the Mount Helan Rock Paintings represent ancient hunting cultures from different northern nomadic groups. It is believed that Huang Di’s offspring were the main source of those artists; however, some nomadic groups from the Di Jun, Shao Hao, or other peoples also had the ability to reach this area.

Second, to the north of the Kazakhskiy Melkosopochnik and its surrounding areas; further north to the Baraba steppe, Ishim Grassland, Yablonovyy Khrebet Mountains and further northern areas, also to the Tianshan Mountains, Altay Shan Mountains, further north and northeast to the Mongolian Plateau, then to the east to the Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, Northeast Plain and Changbai Mountains, until they reached the Bohai Sea, Sea of Japan and the Korean Peninsula, which was named Liu Bo Mountains in Shanhaijing.

Huang Di’s offspring lived a nomadic lifestyle in the northwestern areas and did not develop agriculture during the early Neolithic Age. The microlithic sites, discovered in Qideharen of Habahe County in the northwestern Altay Shan Mountains, reveal that the Huang Di People had lived a nomadic lifestyle in this area from at least 12,000BCE to 2,000BCE and then began to develop some agriculture. The Duoerte Rock Paintings in Habahe County prove that the Huang Di People had lived in this area from 10,000 years BP.

 

 

Some groups of Huang Di’s offspring, who moved to the east of the Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, turned from nomadic to agricultural lifestyles.

Archaeologists discover that Xiaohexi (6500BCE), Xinglongwa (6200-5400BCE) and Zhaojiagou (5200-4400BCE) cultures in Aohan Banner of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in the southeast of the Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, and Hongshan Culture (4000-3000BCE), which have been found in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning, had built farming civilizations of mainly cultivated millet and had reared livestock. These cultures match the inhabitation areas of the Yu Hu and Yu Jing People (the Huang Di’s offspring).

 

The Shao Hao People

The Shao Hao People spread out from Mount Changliu in the western Pamirs Plateau to the east of the Taklamakan Desert and west of the Qinghai Lake, then to the Weihe River Vellay, to the lower reach of the Yellow River, today’s Shandong Peninsula and the eastern seashore, from where, along coastline to the south (finally reach Polynesia) and the north (finally reach the Americas) during 16,000-14,000 years BP.

Shanhaijing records many wars between different groups of people but no wars between the Shao Hao and other peoples in their early time; instead, the early Zhuan Xu People learning eagerly from the Shao Hao and having no time for their musical instruments, reveals the Shao Hao had mastered most advanced sciences and technologies, all other groups of Neolithic Chinese people would like to build close friendship with them. Thereby the Shao Hao had greatly influenced other groups of Neolithic Chinese people with their advanced technologies since their early time.

Around 11,000 years BP, Neolithic Chinese people went from gathering to cultivating millet. The Shao Hao People, who mastered the most advanced sciences and technologies during the Neolithic Age, were the leading founders of Di Qiang Culture, including Laoguantai Culture (6000-5000BCE), Qin’an Dadiwan First Culture (6200-3000BCE) in Qinan County of Gansu and its successor, Yangshao Culture (5000-3000BCE), centered in Mount Hua, and the Cishan-peiligang Culture (6200-4600BCE), another origin of Yangshao Culture, in modern-day Henan and southern Hebei. However, these areas also lived the Di Jun’s offspring, therefore, the Di Jun People were also the contributors of these cultures.

Mount Hua in Huayin City of Shaanxi Province was the center of Yangshao Culture, which existed in the middle reach of the Yellow River. It reached east to eastern Henan Province, west to Gansu and Qinghai provinces, north to the Hetao area, the Great Band of Yellow River and the Great Wall near Inner Mongolia, and south to the Jianghan Plain. The god of Mount Hua was Shao Hao, the White Ancestor-God, suggesting the people lived in the areas of Mount Hua were offspring of the Shao Hao People, thus the Shao Hao were the leading developers of Di Qiang Culture.

The Shao Hao People, who moved to today’s Shandong Peninsula and the eastern seashore, branched out to many groups, living a nomadic lifestyle during about 16,000-14,000 years BP. About 11,000 years BP, they went from gathering to cultivating millet and soon developed the most advanced Neolithic cultures in the Shandong Peninsula, including Baishi Culture (7,000 years BP), a coastal culture in Yantai and its successors, Dawenkou-Longshan cultures in the eastern Shandong Peninsula; and Houli Culture (6400-5700BCE), a millet-growing culture in Linzi, and its successors - Beixin Culture (5300-4100BCE), a millet-growing culture in Tengzhou, Dawenkou (4100-2600BCE) and Longshan (3200-1900BCE) cultures in the western Shandong Peninsula. 

The technologies of making black potteries were developed only in the Shandong Peninsula and later spread out to other places of China. The potteries discovered in Houli Culture are main painted-potteries, but also have some black potteries, which used more advanced technologies. Houli, Beixin and Dawenkou cultures and their successor Longshan Culture were named “Dong Yi Culture” by modern archaeologists and historians, who also agree that Dong Yi Culture was the most advanced culture in Neolithic China.

In order to commemorating the Shao Hao People’s great contribution to the founding and development of Di Qiang Culture and Dong Yi Culture, ancient Chinese people named Mount Hua in Huayin City of Shaanxi Province, the West Sacred Mountain, where the Shao Hao’s offspring were the leading founders of Di Qiang Culture; while named Mount Tai in Shandong Province, the East Sacred Mountain, where the Shao Hao’s offspring were the founders of Dong Yi Culture. Qingshihuang (259-210BCE) was the first emperor who offered sacrific to Mount Tai and Hua. Emperors of the Han, Tang, Song, Ming and Qing all offered sacrifics to Mount Tai and Hua.

Along coastline, the Shao Hao People spread out from today’s Shandong Peninsula and the eastern seashore to the north to today’s Liaodong Peninsula, Korea Peninsula, Japanese archipelago, Kamchatka Peninsula, Aleutian Islands and Americas during about 16,000-14,000 years BP.

The Shao Hao were the leading founders of the millet-growing cultures in the southeast of the Da Xing’an Ling Mountains, such as, Xiaohexi (6500BCE), Xinglongwa (6200-5400BCE) and Zhaojiagou (5200-4400BCE) cultures in Aohan Banner of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and Hongshan Culture (4000-3000BCE), which have been found in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning, had built farming civilizations of mainly cultivated millet and had reared livestock. However, these areas also lived the Huang Di’s offspring, therefore, the Huang Di People were also the contributors of these cultures.

Along coastline, the Shao Hao People spread out from today’s Shandong Peninsula and the eastern seashore to the south to the Changjiang River estuary, Southeastern China, including Taiwan and southeast Asia, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Polynesia and Australia during about 16,000-14,000 years BP. 

The Shao Hao were the leading founders of the rice-growing cultures in the lower reach of the Changjiang River, including Hemudu (5000-3300BCE) in Yuyao of Zhejiang, Majiabang (5000-4000BCE) in Jiaxing of Zhejiang and its successors, Songze (3800-2900BCE) in Qingpu District of Shanghai, and Liangzhu (3300-2300BCE) near Taihu of Zhejiang. However, these areas also lived the Di Jun’s offspring, who lived in the west of the Shao Hao’s territories, therefore, the Di Jun People were also the contributors of these cultures.

 The Jade Statues in Lingjiatan Culture (3500-3300BCE) in Hanshan County of Anhui Province have big eyes with double eyelids, the obvious non-Mongoloid characteristics, suggesting the Shao Hao were direct founders of this culture.

 

 

 

The Shao Hao were the leading founders of Dabenkeng (4000-3000BCE) Culture. Archaeologists confirm that rope figure potteries found in Dabenkeng were similar with Hemudu, Majiabang and Liangzhu cultures.

Due to the sea level rising during 16,000-10,000 years BP, many territories of the Shao Hao’s offspring were drowned by sea water and did not leave many archaeological remains for us. When the Holocene began in about 10,000 years BP, the sea level rose again.[4] As about 6,000 years BP, the sea level was two to five meters higher than today’s present sea level, as about 5,500 years BP, the sea level was two to five meters lower than present sea level, the concequences of this climate change led to another large-scale migration of the Shao Hao from the Shandong Peninsula to the south (to Polynesia) and north (to the Americas) along coastline. 

During this period, Dawenkou Dong Yi Culture (4100-2600BCE) spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the north to the inhabitation areas of Hongshan Culture (4000-3000BCE) (in an area stretching from Inner Mongolia to Liaoning), also to the Liaodong Peninsula, Korea Peninsula, Japanese archipelago, Kamchatka Peninsula, Aleutian Islands and Americas, and turned these regions into outposts of Dong Yi Culture.

Meanwhile, Dawenkou Dong Yi Culture spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the south to the lower reach of the Changjiang River, the inhabitation areas of Dabenkeng (4000-3000BCE) Culture, and southeast Asia, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia and Polynesia and turned these regions into outposts of Dong Yi Culture.

Many painted-potteries and a large numbers of black potteries discovered in the lower reach of the Changjiang River, prove the deep influence by Dawenkou Culture.

Archaeological discoveries match the Shao Hao’s inhabitation areas recorded in Shanhaijing, which also reveal that the sea level rising forced the Shao Hao to move. The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South records the Bei People (Shao Hao’s offspring) fought with the Di Jun People for territory, lost the fight and moved to the Mei Yuan Lake. This story tells us that the Shao Hao People, who had moved to the south of the Changjiang River, moved to the west when the sea level rising, entered the territories of the Di Jun People and caused conflicts.

 

The Di Jun People

The Di Jun People spread out from the Pamirs Plateau to the east of the Taklamakan Desert and west of the Qinghai Lake. They spread out to the Altun Mountains, Qilian Mountains and Helan Mountains, then to the Loess Plateau and the Northern China Plain.

Following the Shao Hao People, the Di Jun People spread out to the Weihe River Valley and then to the lower reach of the Yellow River, lived a nomadic lifestyle in the west of the Shao Hao’s inhabitation areas, collecting millet and hunting animals. Around 11,000 years BP, they went from gathering to cultivating millet.

The Di Jun and Shao Hao People were the contributors of the Weihe River Valley Di Qiang Culture and the Shao Hao People took the leading position.

The Di Jun People spread out from the Yellow River to the Changjiang River in their middle and lower reaches, then to the south of the Changjiang River before 14,000 years BP. The Neolithic archaeological sites in Dao County of Hunan Province have discovered cultivated rice about 12,000BCE.  

The lower reach of the Changjiang River Valley Cultural System, a rice-growing system, includes: Hemudu (5000-3300BCE), Majiabang (5000-4000BCE), Songze (3800-2900BCE) and Liangzhu (3300-2300BCE) Cultures, matching the inhabitation areas of the Shao Hao People, but the Di Jun People also had the ability to reach there and lived in the west of the Shao Hao’s territories, which were near coastline.

Archaeologists have identified the remains of several skeletons in Hemudu sites have high and wide cheekbones, shovel-shaped incisor, flat nasal bone, concave nasal bridge and low orbit, bearing clearly Mongoloid racial characteristics, suggesting they were offspring of the Di Jun People. Also the Jade Statues in Lingjiatan Culture (3500-3300BCE) in Hanshan County of Anhui Province have big eyes with double eyelids, the obvious non-Mongoloid characteristics, suggesting they were offspring of the Shao Hao People.

The middle reach of the Changjiang River Valley Cultural System, a rice-growing system, includes: Pengtoushan (8200-7800BCE) in Li County of Hunan, Qujialing (2550-2195BCE) in Jingshan of Hubei and Daxi (4400-3300BCE) in Chongqing in the southwest of the Sichuan Basin. Pengtoushan and Qujialing matched the inhabitation areas of the Di Jun People, while both the Di Jun and Zhuan Xu People had the ability to reach Daxi and the Di Jun lived in the east of the Zhuan Xu’s territories, which were near the Tibetan Plateau.

The potteries found in Pengtoushan were only painted potteries, a little resemblance with the early Di Qiang Culture, suggesting the Changjiang River Valley cultures were influenced by the Yellow River Valley cultures. The potteries in Daxi Culture were mostly painted potteries but also many black potteries and in Qujialing Culture were main black potteries, suggesting that Yangshao Di Qiang Culture (5000-3000BCE) had deeply influenced Daxi Culture and Longshan Dong Yi Culture (3200-1900BCE) had deeply influenced Qujialing Culture.

 

The Zhuan Xu People

The Zhuan Xu People spread out from Mount Buzhou in the Pamirs Plateau to the east of the Taklamakan Desert and west of the Qinghai Lake during around 16,000-15,000 years BP.

Shanhaijing records many wars between different groups of the Zhuan Xu People, such as the Xing Tian fought with the Zhuan Xu People for the status of their Ancestor-god, recorded in The Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas: West, suggesting the Zhuan Xu had different factions. The famous legend of Gong Gong fighting with the Zhuan Xu for the leadership but losing, bumping his head against Mount Buzhou in anger, was also due to the faction conflict.

Shanhaijing also records many wars between the Zhuan Xu and Huang Di People and those wars ended with the Zhuan Xu’s defeat, such as the Ying Long killed the Chi You with help from the Ba and later killed the Kua Fu. The Ying Long and Ba were the Huang Di’s offspring while the Chi You and Kua Fu were Zhuan Xu’s offspring.

Shanhaijing has no record of the Zhuan Xu having war with the Shao Hao, instead, The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East records that the Shao Hao People nurtured the more immature Zhuan Xu People and the Zhuan Xu discarded their musical instruments - Qin and Se, suggesting the Zhuan Xu had built close friendship with the Shao Hao since their early time and learned eagerly the most advanced technologies from the Shao Hao.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North says Zhuan Xu and nine wives were buried in Mount Fuyu, which was located between the Yellow River beyond the northeast sea (Qinghai Lake). The Mount Fuyu is located in today’s Aemye Ma-chhen Range, which is located inside the U-shaped turn of the Yellow River.

The Aemye Ma-chhen Range is very near to the Weihe River Valley. Some of the Zhuan Xu People possibly followed the Shao Hao and Di Jun People to enter the Weihe River Valley. However, Shanhaijing records many wars between the Zhuan Xu and Di Jun People since their early time and those wars ended with the Zhuan Xu’s defeat. For an example, the Yu People fought with the Gong Gong in the Guo Mountain near Mount Buzhou. Due to the overwhelming majority of the Di Jun People moving to the eastern China, they did not allow the Zhuan Xu People to enter the Weihe Plain and move to the east to grab territories from them. This matches Shanhaijing having no records of the Zhuan Xu People living in the eastern China. The Di Jun People lived in the east of the Zhuan Xu’s territories, which were near the Tibetan Plateau.

The famous Dzopa stone discs, which were made about 12,000 years BP and discovered in 1938 in the Bayankala Mountains, were the evidence of the Zhuan Xu lived near the Tibetan Plateau about 13,000-12,000 years BP, when scientists believed that the temperature there was fit for human habitation.

However, about 11,000 years BP, the Younger Dryas Event happened, the temperature in the Tibetan Plateau dropped nearly three degrees, meanwhile, the rapid uprising of the Tibetan Plateau began since 10,000 years BP. During this period, there were many earthquakes. The famous legend of Gong Gong fighting with the Zhuan Xu for the leadership and bumping his head against Mount Buzhou, was one of the earthquakes. The Zhuan Xu People in the Tibetan Plateau almost perished due to the great changes of environment; most of them had to move to other places, only a few groups of people were able to survive disasters. The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West says that the San Mian People, who had three faces and one arm, lived in the northern Tibetan Plateau and did not die. They survived during the environment changes.

Shanhaijing has many records of the Zhuan Xu People living near the Tibetan Plateau and later moving to the south. The Zhu Rong People moved from the west to the east of the Chishui River and lived in the far south of the Di Mountain, recorded in The Classic of Regions Beyond the Sea: South, hinting us that the Zhuan Xu’s offspring moved to the south along the east of the Tibetan Plateau. The Huan Tou People, who were offspring of Gun (Zhuan Xu’s offspring) and used to live in the west of the Qinghai Lake, moved to the south of the Tibetan Plateau due to the great environment changes and settled near the sea, highly possible today’s Dhaka of Bangladesh. From that area, the Huan Tou People had the ability to spread out to today’s India, South Asia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Polynesia and Australia.

The Zhuan Xu People lived in the south and west of the Di Jun People’s territories. Both the Zhuan Xu and Di Jun People had the ability to reach today’s Chongqing, where Daxi Culture (4400-3300BCE) was developed.

A famous record in The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West goes, the Yu Fu People (the Zhuan Xu’s offspring), who lived in the west and north of the Taklamakan Desert, were nearly erased due to the great natural disasters. They moved to the south of the Taklamakan Desert. “The Zhuan Xu People recovering from death” hints us that the Yu Fu moved to the Aemye Ma-chhen Range, where the Zhuan Xu used to live and were buried, and claimed they were the Zhuan Xu People. They changed their totem from a snake (or animal) to a fish.

Some legends said that the ancestors of Sanxingdui came from the north along the rivers. The Yu Fu People moved from the Aemye Ma-chhen Range, which is exactly in the north of the Sichuan Basin, to the south and entered Sichuan Basin. Archaeologists believe that the Yu Fu mentioned in Shanhaijing left remains at the archaeological site of Sanxingdui in Guanghan City in the northwestern Sichuan Basin. Archaeologists have discovered remains of human activity in Sanxingdui about 12,000 years BP. The Yu Fu Culture in Shanhaijing was the ancestor of the Yu Fu Culture whose remains were found in Sanxingdui. The cultural relics of Jinsha Culture (about 1250-650BCE), 50 kilometers to Sanxingdui, share similarities with Sanxingdui, but some of Jinsha’s relics share similarities with Liangzhu Culture (3300-2300BCE) in the lower reach of the Changjiang River. Historians believe that the Jinsha People came from Sanxingdui, but had influenced by the Changjiang River Valley cultures. 

 

 

Dalongtan Culture (about 4500BCE), situated at Long’an County of Guangxi Province, was on the moving route of the Zhuang Xu’s offspring, who moved from the north of the Tibetan Plateau to the south, until reached the sea during about 16,000-14,000 years BP.

Both of the founders of Sanxingdui and Dalongtan were the Zhuang Xu People, but the Yu Fu People were not ancestors of the Dalongtan People.

 

 

 

Cultures		Founders
Here, Shao Hao refers to Shao Hao's offspring, so do Di Jun, Zhuan Xu and Huang Di.
Yellow River Di Qiang Culture	Laoguantai (6000-5000BCE) Qin’an Dadiwan First (6200-3000BCE) Cishan-Peiligang (6200-4600BCE) Yangshao (5000-3000BCE) Majiayao (3000-2000BCE)	Shao Hao & Di Jun (Shao Hao was the leading founder.)
Yellow River Dong Yi Culture	Houli (6400-5700BCE) Beixin (5300-4100BCE) Dawenkou (4100-2600BCE) Longshan (3200-1900BCE)	Shao Hao
Changjiang River Culture	Majiabang (5000-4000BCE) Hemudu (5000-3300BCE) Liangzhu (3300-2300BCE) Songze (3800-2900BCE)	Shao Hao & Di Jun (Shao Hao was the leading founder.)
	Pengtoushan (8200-7800BCE) Daxi (4400-3300BCE) Qujialing (2550-2195BCE)	Di Jun, but the later stages were influenced by Shao Hao
Southeast Coast	Dabenkeng (4000-3000BCE)	Shao Hao
Zhujiang River	Dalongtan (4500BCE)	Zhuan Xu
Chengdu of Sichuan	Sanxingdui (12000-3000BCE)	Zhuan Xu
Da Xing’an Ling	Xiaohexi (6500BCE) Xinglongwa (6200-5400BCE) Zhaojiagou (5200-4400BCE) Hongshan (4000-3000BCE)	Shao Hao & Huang Di (Shao Hao was the leading founder.)

 

The Nü He People

The Nü He People and Their Earliest Migration Routes

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East records, “The Shao Hao People lived in the Gan Mountains, where the Ganshui River came from.”

Also, The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South records, “There were the Xi He People, living around the Gan spring-water, source of the Ganshui River, beyond the Eastern Sea. The Xi He women, who were wives of the Di Jun men, just gave birth to ten groups of the Ri (sun) People and often bathed the Ri (sun) in the Ganyuan Lake.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East records, “The Nü He People were called Mother of Yue. Someone was named Yuan (a kind of phoenix), living in the East End of the Earth and controlling the sun and the moon to make them rise in order.” Guo Pu (276-324CE), the most famous Philology and astronomer in the Jin Dynasty, said, “Yuan” was a kind of phoenix.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West records, “There were women who just bathed the Yue (moon). The Chang Xi women, who were wives of the Di Jun men, gave birth to twelve groups of the Yue (moon) People, who lived in the northwestern Tibetan Plateau, where also lived the Zhuan Xu’s offspring, Chong and Li.”

The literal meaning of the Chinese characters, “Ri” is sun, “Yue” is moon, “Chang” is invariable, “Nü” is female, and “He” is together with, and, harmonization, integration, peace and kindness. “Nü He” means the He People having female as leader.

Modern scholars commonly agree that the Gan Mountain was located in today’s Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains. The Ganshui River came from these mountains and went to the Ganyuan Lake, almost certainly today’s four lakes of Nanyang, Dushan, Zhaoyang and Weishan.

Shanhaijing tells the Nü He People and the phoenix Yuan lived near the East End of the Earth in the easternmost seashore, suggesting they were offspring of the Shao Hao People. Also the Nü He living near the seashore suggests they were the main groups (Shao Hao’s offspring), who moved along coastline to the north to the Arctic Circle and Americas and south to the lower reach of the Changjiang River, southeastern China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Polynesia and Australia during 16,000-14,000 years BP, when the world’s sea level was about 120 meters lower than today, and today’s Bohai Sea did not exist and the Eastern China connected with the land of today’s Japan.

The early inhabitation areas of the Nü He People covered a large areas including today’s eastern Shandong Peninsula and its east areas, also spread out to the north to today’s Liaodong Peninsula, Korea Peninsula, Japanese archipelago, Kamchatka Peninsula, Aleutian Islands and Americas, and south to Eastern and Southeastern China, including Taiwan, then to Southeastern Asia, Polynesia and Australia.

During 18,000-10,000 years BP, the glaciers melted quickly and the sea levels rose from about 130 meters lower than today to about today’s level. The sea level rising drowned most of the Nü He’s inhabitation areas and at last stopped their migration along coastline to the Americas and Polynesia.

Clearly, the Nü He People, who lived along coastline, turned from nomadic to coastal and maritime lifestyles, developed the earliest coastal and maritime cultures.

Archaeologists agree that the Baishi Culture (about 7,000 years BP), a kind of coastal culture, had its own sources - the earliest Neolithic coastal and maritime cultures, which were built by the Baishi’s ancestors (one group of the Nü He People) along coastline in the Jiaodong Peninsula and were drowned by sea water during the sea level rising.

When the Holocene began in about 10,000 years BP, the sea level rose again. The sea level rose to two to five meters higher in about 6,000 years BP and dropped to two to five meters lower in about 5,500 years BP, then rose again to present level in about 5,000 years BP. The rising sea level forced the Nü He People to move again along coastline.

In Studying Prehistoric Human-face Petroglyphs of the North Pacific Region, Song Yao-liang discovered that Aleutians in northwestern America exhibit similarities in religion culture with Dawenkou Dong Yi Culture (4100-2600BCE).[5] Similar human-face petroglyphs, which were named Northwest Coastal Petroglyphs, appeared numerously in the eastern China, South Korea, the Heilongjiang River Valley in eastern Russia, the West Coast of North America, from Alaska down the west coast of Canada, through American states to northern California, suggesting another large-scale migration of the Shao Hao and Nü He People in about 4,000 years ago brought these prehistoric human-face petroglyphs to America. The common view of the migration route was that it came via the Bering. However, another theory suggests that people from East Asia moved to South Korea, Japan, Aleutian Islands and the Americas.

 

 

 

 

 

The Nü He, Xi He and Chang Xi Built Ten Groups of the Ri (sun) People and Twelve Groups of the Yue (moon) People.

Shanhaijing tells the Nü He People were Mothers of Yue (moon), meanwhile, Shanhaijing records the Chang Xi women, who found the Di Jun men to be their husbands, gave birth to twelve groups of the Yue (moon) People, who lived in the western Kunlun Mountains. Both the Nü He and Chang Xi were mothers of the Yue (moon), suggesting the Chang Xi and Nü He originally belonged to the same group and the Chang Xi came from the Nü He, who lived in the eastern Shandong Peninsula.

Shanhaijing tells the Xi He People lived in the upper reach of the Ganshui River in the Gan Mountain (in today’s Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains). The Xi He women, who found the Di Jun men to be their husbands, gave birth to ten groups of the Ri (sun) People, who lived near the Ganyuan Lake, today’s four lakes of Nanyang, Dushan, Zhaoyang and Weishan.

Both Chang Xi and Xi He had the same word “Xi” in their names and both Xi He and Nü He had the same word “He” in their names, suggesting the Nü He, Chang Xi and Xi He shared the same origin. The Chang Xi and Xi He came from the Nü He, who lived in the eastern Shandong Peninsula. The Nü He’s, Xi He’s and Chang Xi’s locations were in today’s Shandong Peninsula and they were the Shao Hao’s offspring.

Historical records tell that the Chang Xi and Yue (sun) People were like chanzhu (toad). Wang An-shi (1021-1086) said, Chanzhu (toad) was homesick, it would return home no matter how far it was taken away. These records reveals that the Xi He, Ri (sun), Chang Xi and Yue (moon) People regarded themselves as invariable tributary groups to the Nü He and often went back to the eastern Shandong Peninsula to visit the Nü He.

 

The Nü He People Took the Vital Role in Developing Dong Yi Culture.

Houli Culture (about 6400-5700BCE) originated in Linzi of Shandong.

Archaeologists regard Houli Culture (about 6400-5700BCE), whose typical site is Houli of Linzi, which was located in the Zi River Valley in the northeast of the Taishan Mountains, as the earliest phase of Dong Yi Culture.

Houli Culture is a millet-growing culture, centered in Houli of Linzi, spread out to Zouping and Zhangqiu areas, around the northern and northeastern Taishan Mountains, also to Changqing in the northwest of Tai’an and Hanting of Weifang.

Archaeological discoveries and Shanhaijing’s records reveal that the Shao Hao People lived in Gan Mountain, today’s Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains, since as early as 16,000-14,000 years BP. Meanwhile, Sima Qian (145-87BCE) recorded in The Records of the Grand Historian: Second Xia Benji, The Lai People, also called Lai-Yi(1), occupyed a wide area of the Zi River Valley (today’s Zibo’s territory) and Wei River Valley (today’s Weifang’s territory) to the east during the Xia’s time (about 2070-1160BCE). The name of Lai means wheat, suggesting it appeared as early as Longshan Culture (3200-1900BCE), when wheat was widely cultivated in today’s Shandong Peninsula.

The Lai’s ancestors were surely the Shao Hao People, who lived in the Gan (today’s Taishan and Yimengshan) Mountains as early as about 16,000-14,000 years BP. Around 11,000 years BP, Neolithic Chinese people went from gathering to cultivating millet. The Lai’s ancestors moved to the Zi and Wei river valleys and developed Houli Culture (6400-5700BCE), and much later changed their name to Lai during Longshan Culture (3200-1900BCE).

 

Baishi Coastal Culture (about 7,000 years BP) originated in Yantai of Shandong.

Archaeologists agree that Baishi Culture (about 7,000 years BP), which was named after the village of Baishi of Yantai, whose altitude is 23 meters today, was a kind of coastal culture in the Jiaodong Peninsula and had influences to the Liaodong Peninsula, Korea Peninsula and Japanese archipelago.

Baishi Culture was more developed than Banpo Di Qiang Culture (about 6800-6300 years BP) of Xi’an. Baishi coastal culture and Beixin (about 5300-4100BCE), an inland culture in the western Shandong, were in the same period, had some similarities, but had major differences, suggesting that Baishi Culture had its own resources - the advanced earliest Neolithic coastal and maritime cultures along coastline in the Jiaodong Peninsula. However, most sites of the earliest coastal and maritime cultures were drowned by sea water during the sea level rising, but Baishi site was the rare survivor. Baishi Coastal Culture proves that the Jiaodong Peninsula was the important birthplace of Chinese Neolithic coastal and maritime cultures, which had influences to the Liaodong Peninsula, Korea Peninsula, Japanese archipelago, Kamchatka Peninsula, Aleutian Islands and Americas. [6]

During 18,000-10,000 years BP, the glaciers melted quickly and the sea levels rose from about 130 meters lower than today to about today’s level. The sea level rising drowned most of the Nü He’s inhabitation areas. One group of the Nü He People in today’s eastern Shandong Peninsula lived along coastline, carried forward and develop the Neolithic Coastal and Maritime Culture. They were founders of Baishi Culture, and its its successors - Dawenkou-Longshan Culture in the eastern Shandong Peninsula.

When the Holocene began in about 10,000 years BP, the sea level rose again to two to five meters higher in about 6,000 years BP and dropped to two to five meters lower in about 5,500 years BP, then rose again to present level in about 5,000 years BP. The rising sea level forced the Nü He People moved again along coastline. The Nü He People moved along coastline and brought the most advanced Dawenkou Culture (4100-2600BCE) from the Eastern Shandong Peninsula to the south and north to the South Korea, Japan, Aleutian Islands and Americas. 

 

Beixin Culture (5300-4100BCE) originated in Tengzhou and Qufu of Shandong.

Beixin Culture, a millet-growing culture, existing in the southern and northern Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains in the west of the Jiaolai River, including today’s Yanzhou, Qufu, Tai’an, Pingyin, Changqing, Jinan, Zhangqiu, Zouping, Wenshang, Zhangdian, Qingzhou, Juxian, Linshu, Lanlin and Tengzhou. It also spread out to the north of the Taishan mountains, turned the inhabitation areas of Houli Culture into outposts of Beixin Culture, also spread out to the south to Lanlin, Linshu, Juxian, Lianyungang and Tanxi County of Anhui.

The birth places of Beixin Culture in the southwestern Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains, matched the inhabitation areas of the Xi He People, thus, the Xi He were the founders of Beixin Culture.

Shanhaijing and historical records reveal that the Xi He and Chang Xi came from the Nü He People. We can grasp some historical truths from Shanhaijing’s records and archaeological discoveries. During the sea level rising bewteen 10,000 - 5,000 years BP, one group of the Nü He People, who lived in the Jiaodong Peninsula, still worried about the sea level keeping rising to drown the whole Shandong Peninsula. They ordered some of them, re-named “Xi He” (with female as leader) to move to the southwestern Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains, later the Xi He set up ten groups of the Ri (sun) People near the Four Lakes; also ordered some of them, re-named “Chang Xi” (with female as leader) to move to the western Kunlun Mountains, later the Chang Xi set up twelve groups of the Yue (moon) People there. The Xi He, Chang Xi, Ri (sun) and Yue (moon) People regarded themselves as invariable tributary groups to the Nü He and often went back to the Jiaodong Peninsula to visit the Nü He. The movement of the Chang Xi and Xi He People surely happened before 5300BCE, when the Beixin Culture began.

The Xi He People in the southwestern Taishan Mountains turned from coastal and maritime to agricultural lifestyles, learned from both Houli inland culture and the earliest Jiaodong’s coastal and maritime cultures, and developed the more advanced inland culture - Beixin Culture (5300-4100BCE).

Archaeologists regard Beixin Culture as Houli’s successor, but Beixin Culture has significant similarities with Baishi Culture in Yantai. Those similarities suggest the Beixin (Xi He) People and Baishi (Nü He) People had interflow. Such interflow was because the Xi He, who came out from the Nü He, regarded themselves as an invariable tributary group to the Nü He and kept close connections with the Nü He. 

Archaeologists agree Beixin Culture (5300-4100BCE), an inland culture, and Baishi Culture (about 7,000 years BP), a coastal culture, were in the same period, had similarities, but also had major differences. The differences tells that Baishi Culture in Yantai had its own sources - the earliest coastal and maritime cultures along coastline in the Jiaodong Peninsula, which had been drowned by sea water during the sea level rising. However, Beixin Culture had two sources – Baishi and Houli Cultures.

 

 

 

Dawenkou Culture (about 4100-2600BCE) originated in Tai’an of Shandong.

Archaeologists regard Dawenkou Culture, whose main food was millet, as Beixin’s successor. Dawenkou Culture (about 4100-2600BCE) existed primarily in the Shandong Peninsula, but also appeared in Anhui, Henan and Jiangsu provinces. The typical site at Dawenkou is located in Tai’an, where was the inhabitation area of the Xi He People. The Xi He People were the founders of Dawenkou Culture.

 

Longshan Culture (about 3200-1900BCE) originated in the southwestern Taishan Mountains.

Archaeologists regard Longshan Culture as Dawenkou’s successor. Longshan Culture (about 3200-1900BCE) was centered on the central and lower Yellow River, including Shandong, Henan and Shaanxi provinces. During Longshan Culture, wheat was widely cultivated in the Shandong Peninsula and spread out to eastern Henan. The typical site of Longshan Culture is located in the town of Longshan in Jinan, where was the the inhabitation area of the Xi He People. The Xi He People were the leading founders of Longshan Culture.

We can conclude that the Nü He People, who lived in the Jiaodong Peninsula, were the founders of Baishi Culture, its sources - the earliest coastal and maritime cultures, and its successors - Dawenkou-Longshan Culture in the Jiaodong Peninsula. The Xi He People (one group of the Nü He), whose inhabitation areas were in the southwestern Taishan and Yimengshan Mountains to surrounding areas, were the founders of Beixin Culture and its successors - Dawenkou-Longshan Culture in the western Shandong Peninsula.

By accepting exogamy with the Di Jun People and setting up ten groups of the Ri (sun) People, the Xi He (Nü He) People expanded their territories, spread their most advanced sciences, technologies and cultures to the Di Jun and other peoples. This helps Dong Yi Culture spread out from the Shandong Peninsula to the whole China.

 

Shanhaijing’s Records of the Earliest Worships

The Classic of the Five Hidden Mountains records the earliest worships.

 

South Mts	First Chain: Their god had a bird body with a dragon head. Second Chain: Their god had a dragon body with a bird head. Third Chain: Their god had a dragon body with a human face.
West Mts	First Chain:Their god was the god of Mount Hua. (The god of Mount Hua was Shao Hao.) Second Chain: Ten of their gods had a horse body with a human face; seven of their gods had a cattle body with a human face, four feet and one arm. Third Chain: Their god had a sheep body with a human face. Fourth Chain: Their gods had a horse body or bird body with a human face.
North Mts	First Chain:Their god had a snake body with a human face. Second Chain: Their god had a snake body with a huma face. Third Chain: Twenty of their gods had a horse body with a human face. Fourteen of their gods had a pig body and wore jade. Ten of their gods had a pig bodywith a snake tail, eight feet.
East Mts	First Chain: Their god had a human body with a dragon head. Second Chain: Their god had an animal body with a human face, wearing deer horns. Third Chain: Their god had a human body with ram’s horns. Fourth Chain: (NIL)
Central Mts	First Chain: (NIL) Second Chain: Their god had a bird body with a human face. Third Chain:The god, Tai Feng, had a human body with a tiger tail, clothing in the light. It ccould change the weather. Fourth Chain: Their god had an aminal body with a human face. Fifth Chain: (NIL) Sixth Chain: Their god was the god of Mount Hua. (The god of Mount Hua was Shao Hao.) Seventh Chain: Sixteen of their god had a pig body with a human face; Three of their god had three heads with human faces. Eighth Chain: Their god had a bid body with a human face. Nineth Chain: Their god had a horse body with a dragon head. Tenth Chain:Their god had a dragon body with a human face. Eleventh Chain: Their god had a pig body with a human head. Twelveth Chain: Their god had a bird body with a dragon head.

 

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West tells us, “In the west of the Qinghai Lake and a corner of the Tibetan Plateau, there was Mount Buzhou. There were ten spirits (gods). It said that Nüwa’s intestines scattered into ten spirits; they lived in millet fields and slept on roads.” “Ten spirits” came from Nüwa and under her jurisdiction, lived near Mount Buzhou. This reveals that all ancient Chinese people, including the five biggest groups, regarded Nüwa as the highest Goddess since their early time.

After ancient Chinese people had moved from the Pamirs Plateau to other places of China, they developed many different worships, which were from the force of nature, most of them were zoolatry. However, they still respected Nüwa as the highest Goddess.